The Effectiveness Of Poverty Alleviation - 1283 Words

Erica Evbadoloyi 4/3/15 URSP 420 Prof. Shriar The Effectiveness of Poverty Alleviation in Brazil I. Introduction For many years, poverty in Brazil has been an issue; it is a key program according to the Brazilian government as of late. The government are finding different ways to address the so-called problem. For instance, there has been poverty alleviation programs and policies that could fix the problem; poverty would continue to decrease in size due to these programs and policies. Alleviation policies and programs tend to gear towards poverty reduction. It brings on more impact when it comes to the government. Poverty alleviation can lead to more tax and asset accumulation. For example, it could supplement tax coverage and increase overall security coverage. It also tends to bring more access to health and education. Alleviation could redistribute certain income through programs. The existence of poverty has trickled down in the past fifteen years. The rate of poverty affected the urban areas as well as in the rural areas of Brazil at roughly fifty percent. (World Bank Studies 2013). This m eans that poverty problem is being addressed very thoroughly. Poverty reduction remains a challenge, especially in the rural areas. The analysis of poverty is greatly constrained because of inadequacy of the given population data as opposed to urban areas. While alleviation policies and programs emphasizes poverty reduction in Brazil, they can lead to governmental impact, tax andShow MoreRelatedPoverty Alleviation : Cash Or Non Cash Assistance? Essay1498 Words   |  6 PagesPoverty alleviation: cash or non-cash assistance? Alleviating poverty has never been an easy task for both developed and developing countries. Alongside the debate of who are considered poor, the public has never come to a conclusion whether cash or non-cash assistance should be prioritized for poverty alleviation. This essay explores the benefits and challenges of both types of approaches. Additionally, the country context is also discussed to analyze how the level of countries’ economic developmentRead MoreBenefits Of Natural Heritage Conservation For The Health Of The People, Environment And Economic Development1285 Words   |  6 Pagescontribute to poverty alleviation. This paper will examine whether or not these are realistic expectations or simply ideas written on paper. Dr Will Turner, the Vice President for Conservation International states: â€Å"conserving the world’s remaining biodiversity isn’t just a moral imperative; it is a necessary investment for lasting economic development. But in many plac es where the poor depend on these natural services, we are dangerously close to exhausting them, resulting in lasting poverty.† It is evidentRead MoreEssay about Agricultural Effects of the Drip Irrigation System1587 Words   |  7 PagesThe article evaluates the efficiency, effectiveness, social, economic and environmental impacts of the drip irrigation system. The drip irrigation system has the potential to increase the agricultural productivity and also to reduce water usage required for irrigation. It is a system of pipes and tubing located under the soil. Water is passed through these pipes which end at near the roots of the plants. This makes the water loss minimal. Initial stage is designing the system and its installationRead MoreAnnual Report Released By Conservation Legacy878 Words   |  4 Pagestitled celebrating Volunteers in Service to America on its 45th anniversary and recognizing its contribution to the fight against poverty, was presented before the 111th c ongress to demonstrate the effectiveness of the program through the eyes of legislators. In the resolution, it was stated that as of February 2010, 175,000 VISTAs have served in communities to implement poverty prevention programs (Figure 6). Additionally, VISTAs have been behind the successful implementation of programs such as CreditRead Morepantawid pamilyang pilipino program1609 Words   |  7 Pagesto alleviate their immediate needs (short term poverty alleviation); and social development- aims to break the intergenerational poverty cycle through investments in human capital. Who are qualified for Pantawid Pamilya? A household may qualify for Pantawid Pamilya as a beneficiary if it satisfies two (2) criteria: 1.)  Ã‚  Ã‚   At the time of the survey, the household must be classified as poor, based on the National Household Targeting System for Poverty Reduction (NHTS-PR) and 2.)  Ã‚  Ã‚   Have a pregnantRead MoreDeveloping A Unified Un Country Team1619 Words   |  7 Pagestogether and build a coherent association with the UN system to address various issues pertaining to the field of development assistance. With this framework, different UN organizations can associate with the government of the nations to nurture the effectiveness. â€Å"Deliver as one† focuses on the outcomes of the contribution through reforms in order to set up a unified UN country team with one programme, one leader, one budget, one office framework. Though there are constraints related to the resource constraintsRead MoreWater Service Provision And Delivery : Research Review707 Words   |  3 Pagesavailability and economic development and the link between water and poverty. The target ten of Millennium Development Goals – ‘halve by 2015 the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation’– is an evidence of this growing concern. Access to safe drinking water can be a matter of life and death, depending on how it occurs and how it is managed. It can be an instrument for poverty alleviation lifting people out of the difficulties of having to live withoutRead MoreA Proposal for Sustainable Development through Microfinance2024 Words   |  9 Pagesorganizational objectives – that determine the success of microfinance initiatives. These strategic leverage points, in turn, shape the framework for developing a prudent microfinance initiative. Microfinance evolved from Muhammad Yunus’s poverty alleviation strategy of microcredit – providing small non-collateral short-term loans to the poor. In short, Yunus founded the microfinance institution Grameen Bank after a successful experiment of providing loans to poor women in Bangladesh revealed theRead MoreBenefits Of Direct Cash Transfers For Needy Recipients1790 Words   |  8 Pagesof development assistance for other countries in need. One of the two main methods by which relief was provided is through In-Kind Aid, in which benefits are given in the form of goods or services most beneficial to those in need. However, the effectiveness of this system has often been called into question next to the option of simply giving direct cash transfers to needy recipients. On one hand, in-kind aid can serve to lower the prices of commodities to to their increased supply(In kind aid study)Read MorePoverty and Hunger in India : a Socio Economic Analysis of Policies of Gove rnment4316 Words   |  18 Pagesâ€Å"Poverty and hunger in India: A socio-economic analysis of policies of the government(s)† Meril Mathew Joy 2009/BALLB/028 IIIrd Semester ____________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION OF POVERTY AND HUNGER â€Å"Poverty†has reduced but still remains a major concern for Nation.  Poverty is not only the scarcity of resources, but is set of priorities imposed upon the rest of the world by the rich. â€Å"Hunger† and â€Å"Poverty† are powerful but familiar terms. Everyone knows what they

Should the US Government Bail Out and Subsidize the...

1) Should the US government bail out and/or subsidize the American maritime industry? If not, why not? If so to what extent? There is little argument among national policymakers that the American economy was severely horsewhipped by the Great Recession of 2008, and that the country has only recently recovered sufficiently for economists to breathe a sigh of relief that the corner has been turned. Likewise, there is virtually no argument among national policymakers that a healthy maritime industry is also an essential component of the American economy. Finally, there is significant historic precedent. The U.S. government has bailed out other industries and sectors in the past that were viewed as being too large to fail because of the potential adverse impact on the American economy. For instance, in his editorial, Rebuilding America and Creating Jobs - A Jones Act Initiative, Munoz (2011) writes, After bailing out the auto industry with $25 billion in loans and guarantees, the governm ent turned around and provided another $25 billion for the industry to retool its plants to compete on world markets. The experiment succeeded, and American cars and trucks are now among the best in the world (2). Moreover, it is national policy to support the maritime industry. According to Section 1, Purpose and policy of United States, 46 App. U.S.C. 861, 2002: It is necessary for the national defense and for the proper growth of its foreign and domestic commerce that theShow MoreRelatedMarketing Mistakes and Successes175322 Words   |  702 Pageswritten permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, website www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201)748-6011, fax (201)748-6008, website http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. To order books or for customer service please, call 1-800-CALL

Shadow of a Doubt Free Essays

Alfred Hitchcock’s Shadow of a Doubt is no less than a perfect example of film noir. Low-key lighting, dramatic shadow patterning, and camera angles are all expertly used to foreshadow and portray the emotions and psyche of the characters. Hitchcock uses sets and props to mirror scenes, creates characters that are remarkably similar but simultaneously conflicting, and emphasizes emotions that offer contradictions. We will write a custom essay sample on Shadow of a Doubt or any similar topic only for you Order Now The sense of duality and contradiction in the film demonstrates how darkness can take the form of humanity and seep into even the most innocent places and the purest hearts. The mystery of the film is not what causes the suspense, but rather the anxiety that the audience feels stems from Hitchcock’s use of duality as a means to force the audience to face the fact that human contradiction comes from the discontinuity between natural impulses and intellect. He creates parallels that underline similarities and differences that occur simultaneously in society and individuals. Uncle Charlie comes back to his hometown of Santa Rosa, California to visit his sister and her family. There’s also â€Å"Little† Charlie Wright, who loves and adores her uncle. As the movie progresses, Charlie discovers that her beloved uncle might not be what he seems to be—is he the notorious Merry Widow strangler that preys on old, rich women? Or is he an innocent man, wronged by the law? With clues such as the Merry Widow Waltz stuck in her head, the detectives that show up on her doorstep and the expensive but curious ring that her uncle presented her with, Charlie discovers that her uncle is in fact the sick man who believes that killing women is a good idea, and nothing like the man she believed him to be. With her knowledge, Charlie is a liability to her uncle and his safety so he tries to kill her off by making her death seem accidental. When Uncle Charlie is leaving Santa Rosa to head back east, he lures Charlie onto the train and attempts to suffocate her and throw her off. However, Charlie is able to fight back and she ends up pushing her uncle off the moving train to his death. Shadow of a Doubt takes place in a quiet California town: it is innocent, sweet suburbia where the biggest scandal might be a controversy at a pie-eating contest; but, cynicism penetrates the walls of the town, and evil shows its human face. Hitchcock begins by uses establishing shots of the protagonists’ homes to acclimate the audience with the safe place that will soon be violated. Film Scholar Kevin Hagopian once wrote that Hitchcock â€Å"made the home a place where exotic terror lives uneasily with domesticity† (Kevin Jack Hagopian; imagesjournal. com) referring to the introduction of Uncle Charlie, aka the Merry Widow Murderer, into a typical American family. Having the story take place in an idealistic town makes the drama that evolves all the more exciting. The more happy-go-lucky the setting is the greater kick the audience gets out of the introduction of unexpected drama. However, Hitchcock does not create a stark contrast between the setting and the plot merely for the sake of entertainment purposes; it is the way things happen in real life. Tragic events and sinister crimes are not foreshadowed by the weather. There is never the confirmation that a catastrophe is coming and so the characters in the film (namely Little Charlie) are just as taken aback at the series of events that are unfold, as any other person would be if they were put in the same situation. In this sense, the setting is chosen to create a false sense of security for the characters, because in reality, security is but a thin skin stretched over the whole world. Individual scenes also set up important comparisons and contrasts, either by foreshadowing scenes through repetition or with the use of props and staging. The opening scene of the movie foreshadows the funeral scene at the end. Uncle Charlie is reclining on his bed with his hands crossed over his chest. His spirit is dead, and later on he even suggests to his niece, Little Charlie that he had been considering suicide. The train that causes his demise parallels the funeral procession through the town of Santa Rosa. The cars in the funeral procession move in a grim, single file line the same way the train cars speed down the railway. When Uncle Charlie arrives in Santa Rosa, the train belches black funeral smoke into the sky and a dark shadow is cast over everything to symbolize the arrival of evil in a clean and bright town. The scene in which Little Charlie and Detective Graham go out to dinner and discuss the case at hand parallels the scene in which Charlie’s uncle takes her into the cocktail lounge. When Charlie is with Graham the world is untainted and safe. Graham even mentions that while at dinner they were like two normal people, having normal conversation and enjoying themselves. But when Charlie is escorted into the cocktail lounge by her once-beloved uncle, the bubble that she has lived in is popped and she is forced to accept the fact that the world is â€Å"a foul sty† and an evil place where even the most adored people are not always what they seem to be. The ring that Little Charlie accepts from her beloved uncle is not only onfirmation of his crimes, but it is also a symbolic object. Even though the film is in black and white, Hitchcock makes sure that viewers are conscious of the fact that the stone is an emerald. Emerald is a dualistic color according to Western culture. The color can either be a symbol for nature and the vibrancy of life or it can stand for the negative feelings of greed and jealousy. When Charlie receives the ring, and her uncle places it on her finger, it is representative of the strong bond between them and their almost incestuous relationship. However, towards the end, that same ring is the only evidence that Little Charlie needs to convince herself that her uncle is in fact the killer. Ironically, the beautiful gift that Charles gave his niece is that same thing that severs the tie between them and eventually causes her to want nothing to do with him anymore. Hitchcock also conveys dualism through his characters. On the other side of the country, Little Charlie lies in her bed in practically the same position as her uncle. Her pose supports the indication that she resembles him tremendously. This idea is reinforced again and again throughout the film through dialogue about Little Charlie’s telepathy and her belief that she and her uncle are like twins. When Uncle Charlie arrives at the Newton home and is standing in front of young Charlie’s photograph, his face is mirrored in the glass, and overlapped with her image. However, even though the characters resemble each other in relatively obvious ways, they do differ significantly. Uncle Charlie is a psychologically damaged and cynical killer while his niece is idealistic and pure. Even as the viewer’s become conscious of the differences between the two Charlie’s, the winds change when Little Charlie is compelled to kill her uncle. It was by her hands that he fell to his death; she is the reason he fell off the train. This plot twist forces the audience to realize that not all heroes are pure white and villains a stark black, but instead accept that there are grays everywhere and things aren’t as clear as they seem. Uncle Charlie himself is an example of dualism within a person. Hitchcock has represented him as a sort of dark angel. He believes that he is avenging the husbands of the greedy women who only care about the physical, material things in life. However, he refuses to see his own moral duplicity. When he is eating his breakfast in bed on the first morning of his stay in the Newton home, the camera shot is meant to make the headboard behind him imply black wings. As he smokes and puffs rings of smoke into the air, the smoke forms rings that rise and then disappear into thin air—his â€Å"halo† is a temporary cover up. As he descends the stairs, the shadows in the window frames form an upside-down cross, and the low-angle shot portray him as a man who has strayed so far from the right path that he has been cast down from heaven by God. Despite this, he is still given a hero’s funeral and as the residents of Santa Rosa mourn the loss of a generous man, Detective Graham tells Charlie that her uncle really was not all bad, but just like the rest of the world, â€Å"[he needed] watching, that’s all†. In the film, Hitchcock motivates the audience to acknowledge the discontinuities between their emotions and their intellect. Viewers subconsciously become anxious while watching the movie because it calls to attention the viewers’ emotional dualism. In Shadow of a Doubt, viewers are able to identify with the charismatic killer, Charles Oakley. Even though they know that what he has done/is doing is wrong, they still have a certain soft spot for him and cannot help but try to hold onto that romanticized vision of him that his niece had before she was exposed to his sinister secret. For example, when Charlie informs her uncle of the fact that she knows his secret, the action is seen from the girl’s point of view when he grips her forearm and his face clouds over with menacing glare. The once-charming uncle suddenly turns mean and Charlie’s vision of him changes from admiration to hatred at the discovery of his guilt and she lets him know. However, for the audience, just the knowledge of Uncle Charlie’s evildoings is not enough to completely tarnish their view of him. The viewer’s emotional response to Charlie is to forgive his actions because he is psychologically damaged, even though their brains are telling them that he deserves to be punished because of his heinous crimes. As film critic Vincent Canby (1980) stated, â€Å"Hitchcock transform[s] things given into things unknown, the commonplace experience into the exotic breakthrough. The world just outside the Hitchcock frame, and sometimes inside it, is dark indeed, and this awareness fuels not despair but an insatiable and amused curiosity about what else can possibly go wrong† (Vincent Canby; nytimes. om). By making the given unknown, Hitchcock invites viewers on a voyage of self-discovery. The movie stirs up aspects of them that they would rather keep buried and consequentially creates a feeling of unease and apprehension among the audience. Although Shadow of a Doubt seems very simple and straightforward on the surface; Hitchcock incites emotional discourse within it. By inc orporating duality into the film, he forces the audience to recognize how humans contradict themselves. How to cite Shadow of a Doubt, Essay examples

Changes in Architecture throughout history free essay sample

Architecture is the art and science of designing and building shelter for various human activities by enclosing space. At its best, it is a major art form that combines usefulness with beauty. When designing a building, the architect considers the structural system and materials to be used, the purpose of the building, and the size, shape, location, and contours of the site. He or she must also understand the working or living patterns of the people who will occupy or use the building.   Architecture may be religious, domestic, governmental, commercial, or industrial. It expresses the interests and ideals of a civilization, and reflects the ways of living and the construction methods of the era in which it was produced. The Christian religion became a dominant influence in medieval Europe and is expressed in the Gothic cathedrals. High-rise office buildings reflect the importance of business of 20th-century life (Squire, 2003). Architecture has been influenced not only by religious, political, social, and economic conditions, but also by the climate and available building materials of a region, and by inventions and scientific discoveries. In far northern lands of forests, heavy snow, and little sunlight, for instance, wooden structures with steeply sloping roofs and many windows became common. In southern lands where wood is scarce and there is little rain and much sunlight, buildings were often made of sun-dried brick, with flat roofs and only a few small windows. With the technological advances of the 20th century, regional differences in architecture became less obvious (Musgrove, 2000). The importance of climate and natural resources diminished with improved methods of transportation and with improved heating ventilation. Architectural styles differ in structural methods, building materials, and surface ornamentation. Three principles of building have governed architectural style—post and lintel, the arch, and the cantilever. The purposes of this paper are to understand and have an in-depth study on the changes in architecture throughout time. II. Background A. The Renaissance The Renaissance period in architecture began in Italy in the 15th century. By the end of the 16th century, Renaissance architecture had spread throughout Western Europe. Although it was inspired by Roman architectural forms, Byzantine and Gothic construction methods were used and improved on. The Renaissance movement developed in each country along national lines. There were several common characteristics, however. The Romans orders of architecture and the round arch were reintroduced and used for both structural and ornamental purposes. A major concern of renaissance architects was the external effect of a building. Horizontal lines and the symmetrical arrangement of windows and doors emphasized balance and serenity. The dome, raised on a drum, became a prominent feature. Church building continued, but there was more emphasis on the construction of houses and civic buildings (Caudill, 2001). Emphasis on the importance of the individual was a major aspect of the Renaissance period. For the first time, individual architects were recognized and honored. III. Discussion A. Prehistoric Architecture Early humans had neither time nor skill to do more than meet the basic need for shelter. Some people found shelter in caves. Others built simple windbreaks or made crude huts of woven reeds plastered with mud. As communities were established, people built large stone structures called megaliths, such as Stonehenge in England. Dolmens, megaliths thought to have served as tombs, consist of several upright stone slabs supporting a horizontal slab.   Although megaliths do not entirely enclose space, they represent beginnings of what might be called architectural thinking (Salvadori, 2002). They are the simplest examples of the earliest known principle of building—the post and lintel. B. Ancient Architecture Egypt. Post and lintel construction was widely used in ancient Egypt. The chief buildings—tombs and temples—are characterized by simplicity and solidity. The earliest form of the tomb of which examples remain is the mastaba, an oblong structure of sun-dried brick with a flat roof and sloping exterior walls. From the mastaba developed the pyramids (the tombs of the pharaohs), built during the Old Kingdom. During the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptians cut tombs and temples into rock cliffs along the Nile. The great period of temple building was the New Kingdom, or Empire period. Many temples were built at Karnak and Luxor, near Thebes. All these temples were built on basically the same plan. An avenue of sphinxes led to the pylon, a gateway consisting of two massive walls with sloping sides flanking the entrance. On both sides of the pylon stood obelisks, tall, tapering stone shafts (Munro, 2004). Inside, a roofless colonnaded court led to the covered hypostyle hall, crowded with massive columns that supported the roof. Beyond the hall was the sanctuary. The ancient Egyptians knew the principle of the arch and used it in their homes and secular buildings. Since these structures were made chiefly of sun-dried mud brick, few examples have survived. Archeological excavations show that houses were two or three stories high and often had arched ceilings. Western Asia. The valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers lacked stone and timber; therefore sun-dried and kiln-baked bricks were the chief building materials of ancient Mesopotamia. When used as decorative facing on important buildings, the bricks were glazed in different colors. Ancient Mesopotamian architecture often used the arch. Thick walls were built to support arches and barrel- vaulted roofs. Fortifications, temple complexes, and palaces were built on platforms as protection against the frequent floods. Temples were the chief buildings of the Babylonians. Situated near the center of a city, groups of temples served civic and commercial as well as religious needs. Each temple complex was dominated by a ziggurat, a terraced tower. Ramps or flights of stairs connected the various levels and led to a small shrine at the top. The Biblical Tower of Babel in Babylon was a ziggurat (Squire, 2003). Although the Assyrians also built temples and ziggurats, palaces were their major architectural concern. An elaborate gateway led to the palace, consisting of groups of long, narrow rooms opening on courtyards. Both stone and timber were available in Persia, and both post and lintel and arch construction were used. Large halls with slender columns and great commercial stairways richly decorated with relief sculpture are the characteristic features of Persian architecture. Aegean Architecture. One of the early civilizations that developed around the Aegean Sea was the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete. Houses and palaces, the most important buildings, were built of various materials—wood, stone, gypsum, stucco. Post and lintel construction was used. The ruined palace at Knossos (Cnossus) shows the mazelike plan of rooms, courtyards, and staircases that probably gave rise to the legend of the labyrinth (Salvadori, 2002).   A plumbing system brought running water to the palace and the private houses around it. The architecture of the Mycenaean civilization on the mainland of southern Greece differed greatly from that on Crete. It is characterized by the use of stone and the corbelled vault. Palaces and tombs were the chief buildings of architectural interest. The palace usually crowned an acropolis, the high, fortified part of the city. In the lower city, beehive-shaped tombs were cut into the hillsides. These beehive tombs are distinguished by their corbelled domed roofs. C. Classical Architecture Greek Architecture. It was based on the post and lintel principle, and the column is one of its distinguishing features. Colonnades were often used. The Greeks never used the arch in their major buildings, but often used it in inconspicuous places on unimportant structures. Buildings were constructed of marble or coarse stone, such as limestone. The most important Greek buildings were temples that housed statues of gods. Not intended for congregational worship, temples were planned principally for external effect and are marked by dignity and grandeur. The most common type of temple was rectangular and stood on a stepped platform. In the center room, called naos or cella, stood the statue of a god (Caudill, 2001). Occasionally, there was a small room at the entrance of the naos and one at the rear. A single or double row of columns formed the temple’s portico (entrance). In large temples a colonnade, or peristyle, surrounded the naos. Three orders (styles distinguished by the details, proportions, and decoration of a column and entablature) developed in Greek architecture—the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The orders were used by the Romans and influenced architecture during the Renaissance and the 19th century. Roman Architecture. It was marked by great feats of engineering. The development of the arch was Rome’s greatest contribution to architecture. With the vault, dome, and roof-truss, the Romans were able to create well-lighted vast interior spaces in their great public baths and in such temples as the Pantheon (Munro, 2004). The Romans united engineering and architectural grace in utilitarian projects, such as aqueducts, as well as in their amphitheaters, basilicas (law courts), and other public buildings. Roman architects often combined the Greek post and lintel style with arched forms, as in the Colosseum in Rome. They adapted the three Greek orders of architecture and added two more of their own—the Tuscan, a plainer version of the Doric, and the Composite, a combination of the Corinthian and Ionic. Temples were both circular and rectangular. The rectangular temple stood on a raised platform, or podium. A broad stairway led to a deep portico. The cella was the full width of the building, and much of it was surrounded by a colonnade attached to or built into the wall. In addition to palaces, domestic architecture included the private city house, or domus; the country house, or villa; and apartment houses built in long narrow blocks called insulae. Apartment houses were usually four or five stories high, and often had shops and stores on the first floor. Large windows and balconies were common (Musgrove, 2000). D. The 17th and 18th Centuries Italy. Baroque architecture began in Italy in the early 17th century. A bold, unconventional style, it is characterized by curved lines and elaborate ornamentation. Vast sweeping stairways, broken pediments, and buildings of enormous size planned for dramatic effect are notable features of the Baroque style. Curved forms used both structurally and ornamentally, give Baroque buildings a modeled or sculptured quality. The Italian Baroque movement centered in Rome, where Giovanni Bernini and Francesco Borromini were the leading architects. In his design of St. Peter’s Square, Bernini placed statues on top of the colonnade, producing the broken-silhouette skyline that became characteristics of Baroque style (Musgrove, 2000). France. The 17th century is the great age of French Renaissance architecture. The exteriors of buildings combine the regularity and geometric simplicity of the Italian Renaissance with elements of the Baroque style. The vast size of buildings, broken-silhouette skylines, luxuriant interior decoration, and the planned garden are baroque influences. The east faà §ade of the Louvre and the park faà §ade of Versailles Palace have the common low-pitched roof and balustrade. The Rococo style was popular in the 18th century but, as in Italy, was replaced late in the century by Neoclassicism. Jacques Germain Soufflot’s Pantheon in Paris is typical of late-18th-century architecture (Squire, 2003). England. The architecture of the first quarter of the 17th century, called Jacobean, remained transitional. As in France, there was a reaction against the mingling of Gothic and Renaissance elements. Inigo Jones, with his design of the Banqueting House Whitehall, London, began the movement to a more formal classicism that is termed Palladian. Sir Christopher Wren, influenced by French architecture, introduced Baroque elements. Architecture of the late 17th century is called Stuart. Balance, symmetry, and simplicity of ornament characterize 18th-century architecture. The several trends of that century, including the Baroque and Palladian, are called Georgian. Brisk became a common building material, and brick houses trimmed with white stone and woodwork are popularly called Georgian. Other European Countries. In Germany and Austria, the Baroque and Rococo styles were raised to new heights by J.B. Fischer von Erlach, Balthasar Neumann, and others. Churches and palaces built on a large scale, had profusely decorated interiors and exteriors. In the Rococo phase there was much use of white, gold, blue, and other light colors in the exuberant ornamentation. The Zwinger in Dresden and the Belvedere and Karlskirche in Vienna are characteristics buildings (Squire, 2003). E. Architecture in the 19th Century By the end of the 18th century architects had turned away from the Baroque and Rococo styles. Their desire to find new forms led them to ancient and medieval architectural styles, and the 19th century is often called the age of revivals. Classic Revival.   Neoclassicism in architecture appeared in many forms. Influences of ancient Rome are reflected in the Roman Revival style; those of ancient Greece, in the Greek Revival. In the United States Greek and Roman forms were adapted for banks, state capitols, schools, and other buildings. The Greek Revival style had the widest appeal. Among the numerous examples are Arlington House in Arlington National Cemetery and the Treasury Building in Washington, D.C. (Squire, 2003). Thomas Jefferson is considered the father of the American Classic Revival style. His State Capitol in Richmond is typical of Roman Revival. Other outstanding architects of the period include Charles Bulfinch, Benjamin Latrobe, and Robert Mills. Gothic Revival. Growing out of the Romantic Movement in literature, the Gothic revival began, and attained its greatest importance, in England. The earliest example of Gothic Revival in the United States is Richard Upjohn’s Trinity Church in New York City. Grace Church and St. Patrick’s Cathedral in New York City, both designed by James Renwick, are other examples. After the Civil War the movement became popular in domestic architecture (Caudill, 2001). Gothic revival houses are marked by elaborate ornamental gables and porches. Eclecticism. In the second half of the century architects based their designs on a variety of historical styles including Egyptian, Romanesque, Gothic, Moorish, Byzantine, and Renaissance. This practice of selecting architectural forms and details from a variety of sources came to be called eclecticism. In the United States, architects often combined several styles in a single building. Eclectic architects used modern materials and construction techniques for which the old styles were quite unsuited. As a result, great Roman arches or Doric columns were combined with steel frames in such a way that the ancient detail became mere surface decoration (Caudill, 2001). An example found in many cities is the skyscraper atop a structure that looks like a Greek temple. Other Developments. The introduction of iron, steel, and reinforced concrete in building construction and the development of the elevator had a profound effect on architecture. Throughout the Revival and Eclectic periods, architects and engineers were experimenting with new building materials and construction techniques. The greatest structural advances, however, such as the Roeblings in their Brooklyn Bridge and Gustave Eiffel in his famous tower. F. Twentieth-century Architecture New building materials, new construction techniques, and the problems of an industrialized urban society led to a variety of architectural styles. Many architects continued to design Eclectic buildings. Others created highly original designs in reinforced concrete, steel, and glass.   Often emphasis was placed in functionalism, the idea that the design of a building should express and aid its use or function (Musgrove, 2000). Beginnings. Twentieth-century architecture had its roots in the closing quarter of the 19th century. In the United States the structural experiments of Jenney, Dankmar Adler, Louis Sullivan, and other Chicago architects led to the development of the skyscraper. Sullivan, especially, contributed much to skyscraper design. His aim was to let a structure’s function and building materials determine its design. He expressed this view in the phrase â€Å"form follows function† (Musgrove, 2000). IV. Conclusion In conclusion, centuries before the Americas were colonized, many Indian civilizations flourished. In central North America, people built earth mounds for religious purposes. In the southwest the Cliff Dwellers and Pueblo Indians built multi-storied terraced homes. On the other hand, the architecture produced by the followers of Islam influenced both Eastern and Western architectural styles. Although it varied from country to country, mosques and tombs were the most important buildings. Reference: Caudill, W.W., and others (2001). Architecture and You: How to Experience and Enjoy Buildings (Watson-Guptill, 1999). Munro, Roxie (2004). Architects make Zigzags: Looking at Architecture from A to Z (Preservation Press, 1995). Musgrove, John (2000). Sir Banister Fletcher’s A History of World Architecture, 22nd edition (Butterworth’s, 1997). Salvadori, Mario (2002). Structure in Architecture: the Building of Buildings (Prentice-Hall, 1999). Squire, J.C. (2003). A Practical Guide to the Understanding of Architecture (Gloucester Arts Press, 2000).